A History of our Times
The ultimate cause of our present troubles is that King Edward III had too many children! From his fertile soil sprang more than five vigorous trees plus one stunted sapling. He also sired the Hundred Years War, thus providing the nurture for our strife as well as its nativity.
Five sons had the illustrious Edward, and all were raised to the rank of Duke with great estates and connections. First was Edward, (1330-1376), that some call the "Black Prince", Prince of Wales, Duke of Cornwall and Earl of Chester, (titles since born by each succeeding monarch's firstborn son).
Lionel of Antwerp, (1338-1368), married Elisabeth de Burgh, heiress to the Earl of Ulster and was made Duke of Clarence.
John of Gaunt likewise married a great heiress, Blanche Plantagenet, and so became Duke of Lancaster. Fabulously wealthy, veteran of many campaigns. Nonetheless he never won a great victory and so was viewed as less heroic than his father and eldest brother; this led him to a second political marriage to Constance of Castile. Finally, in his dotage, he married Katherine Swynford for love who had been his mistress for at least twenty years.
Edmund of Langley was made Duke of York and married Isabella of Castile, younger sister to Constance.
Lastly, Thomas of Woodstock became Duke of Gloucester. These five made Edward England's wealthiest King, in terms of sons, since the Saxons.
1366 All would still have been well had the succession passed smoothly to a man of stature like the old King. Unfortunately the Black Prince became consumptive whilst on campaign in Spain and died in vita patris in 1376 leaving a child of nine as heir to his father's throne. This child duly became King Richard II upon Edward's death in 1377, necessitating a minority government (meaning government during a minority, not government by a minority.). John, Duke of Lancaster would have been the obvious choice as regent had he not been so detested by the magnates and commons at that time. So instead a system of "continual Councils" ran the country until the King entered into his majority.
This was a troubled time with wars in France, French raids on the Cinque Ports, poll taxes and poll tax revolts. But the continual Council ruled well and the storms were weathered until the King came of age in 1384.
King Richard's uncles had been rather more industrious in producing progeny than the King's father. Lionel, Duke of Clarence had but a single daughter, Philippa who married Edmund Mortimer, Earl of March.
By his first wife, John, Duke of Lancaster had a son, Henry, Earl of Derby and two daughters; Philippa who married King John of Portugal and Elisabeth who married John Holland, Earl of Huntingdon and was made Duke of Exeter. From his second wife are descended the current Kings of Castile. His third wife bore him three sons and a daughter out of wedlock and they were only legitimised post nuptia by an act of Parliament. These all took the sire name of Beaufort after their father's favourite castle in France. John became Marquis of Somerset; Thomas became Duke of Exeter (after the execution and attainder of John Holland by King Henry IV); Henry went into the Church and rose to be Cardinal Bishop of Winchester. Their sister Joan married Ralph Neville, Earl of Westmorland.
Edmund, Duke of York produced Edward, Earl of Rutland and Richard, Earl of Cambridge plus a daughter who married Thomas the future Earl of Gloucester.
Thomas, Duke of Gloucester had but one daughter, Anne. But from her by three husbands sprang the Stafford Dukes of Buckingham and the Bourchiers.
1385 Richard II proved to be utterly despotic, capable of harbouring grudges for decades and being cruelly vengeful upon his victims. He was also violent, capricious, paranoid and prone to favouritism. John of Gaunt, Duke of Lancaster had tried to be a voice of reason and moderation to his nephew. But this did not stop Richard from numbering Gaunt's son, the Earl of Derby, among his victims, along with his uncle Thomas, Duke of Gloucester, the Duke of Norfolk, the earls of Warwick and Arundel, the Archbishop of Canterbury and the Bishop of Lincoln (forced to resign his bishopric in favour of Henry Beaufort). Gloucester was murdered, Arundel executed, Warwick, Norfolk and the Archbishop attainted and exiled for life, and the Earl of Derby's exile for ten years was increased to life and attainder upon the death of his father the Duke of Lancaster. This despite Richard's public promise to allow him to succeed to Gaunt's titles and estates.
1399 This last act was too much. In 1399, Richard left England to campaign in Ireland. The Earl of Derby landed at Ravenser and marched south, ostensibly to claim his inheritance. He met with massive popular support from both magnates and commons. The Duke of York, who had been left as regent by Richard, came over to Henry as did the earls of Northumberland, Westmorland and Worcester. When Richard landed in Wales to confront his nemesis, his own army deserted him and he was captured.
Recognising that he was unfit to rule, the Lords deposed Richard and the Earl of Derby became King Henry IV. His right to the throne was problematical, though he was unquestionably the best man for the job at the time. The trouble was, (and is), that England has no formal law of succession. In Saxon times, a new King was chosen by the magnates from among the blood royal, but since the conquest the crown had mainly passed from father to son by male primogeniture. Could a woman inherit the throne? If not, could she transmit a claim to a son? Richard II's recognised heir was Edmund Mortimer, Earl of March, aged ten. His claim came from Philippa of Clarence. Henry IV put aside March claiming a woman could not inherit the crown. In reality, no-one was going to support the claim of a ten year old boy against Henry in 1399, though he had to suppress more than one rebellion and the strain undoubtedly led to his early death in 1413. As for Edmund, it seems he never promoted his own claim and died in 1425, a loyal subject of the House of Lancaster.
1413 Henry V succeeded his father in 1413 with no taint on his own name and proceeded to prove his majesty by waging a very successful war in France. Possibly our greatest King ever and victor of numerous battles both abroad and at home, (including Shrewsbury at the age of fifteen and Agincourt, of course). He established the new dynasty firmly in people's hearts and minds. Even so, on the eve of Agincourt he had to execute several magnates for conspiring to depose him in favour of March. Within seven brilliant years Henry had the crown of France in his hand! Then - disaster! In 1422 he died besieging Meaux, an inconsequential French town, without ever having seen his six month old heir by his French Queen, Katherine de Valois.
1422 Had Henry VI been half the man his father was all would have been well. This is demonstrated by the progress made during his minority. Until Henry VI came of age, his father's will stipulated that his uncles would govern his kingdoms. Humphrey, Duke of Gloucester in England and John, Duke of Bedford in France. When together, Bedford would take precedence.
Although not as dashing as his eldest brother, Bedford was just as capable and set about securing the young King's realm in France, mixing war and diplomacy with great facility. Gloucester however was less capable and more selfish, using his position to pursue his own interests.
1423 Bedford married politically, to Anne of Burgundy, to cement England's alliance with her brother the Duke. But Gloucester married Jacqueline of Hainault in 1423 and commenced a military campaign to recover her lands in the Low Countries. This brought him into direct conflict with the Duke of Burgundy against both the wishes and advice of Bedford. Gloucester got nowhere and in 1425 he deserted Jacqueline and returned to England to marry her lady-in-waiting, Eleanor Cobham.
Bedford, quite rightly, actively helped Philip, Duke of Burgundy against Gloucester. This was in pursuit of England's best interests but Gloucester never forgave his brother and upon his return to Court began a smear campaign that was to last over a decade.
Realising Gloucester's faults, the Council restricted his authority as protector by insisting it discuss and vet all his decisions. Bishop Henry Beaufort of Winchester headed this Council and these two were to remain at loggerheads for the rest of their lives. Bishop Beaufort was another man of outstanding talent. Though not as selfless as Bedford, unlike Gloucester he was at least able to make his ambitions coincide with the interests of the country.
1425 The Bishop supported Bedford's policy in France and opposed Gloucester's manoeuvres in the Low Countries. When Humphrey returned, they had a fistfight in Council and Bedford had to come to England to sort things out. Bishop Beaufort went abroad on papal business, returning as Cardinal and papal legate in 1428. He made himself useful by lending awesome sums of money to the crown, (£213000 according to some), over the next twenty years.
1429 In April 1429, Joan of Arc inflicted the first real defeats upon us for a decade and crowned the Dauphin King at Rheims in July. Things looked bad for a while but in November Henry VI was crowned King of England and Joan was captured early in 1430 and duly executed. Bedford was able to arrange Henry's coronation as King of France in Paris in 1431 and again the English position abroad was stabilised. But at home, friction between Gloucester and Cardinal Beaufort continued with Humphrey trying to force the Cardinal from his Bishopric and claim full powers of regency for himself. In 1433 Bedford had again to come back to England to control his brother and calm ruffled feathers. This he accomplished with his usual aplomb but he had to return to France the following year.
At this time several protégés emerged that were to take over the reins from the "great players". Richard, Duke of York rose from the ashes of his father's attainder for treason in 1415 to become the richest magnate of England, heir to both York and Mortimer; - Earl of March, Cambridge, Rutland and Ulster as well as Duke of York. Having served as Constable for Henry's coronation ceremony, York served briefly under Bedford in 1434/5.
William de la Pole, Earl of Suffolk from 1430 became an adherent of Cardinal Beaufort, who by 1434 was advocating peace in France to end the crippling cost to the treasury. Unlike York, Suffolk was not wealthy, barely possessing the minimum to support his comital title and this lead him to use his court influence rapaciously over the next two decades. Cardinal Beaufort was also promoting his nephew John, Earl of Somerset since his coming of age in 1425.
Finally, after the death of Henry V, Queen Katherine de Valois had dallied with a notorious Welshman by the name of Owen Tudor and she bore him four children - Edmund, Jasper, Owen and Tacina. This disgraceful liaison horrified the court when it became knowledge in 1430, costing Owen Tudor a term in prison and a fine of £2000 after Queen Katherine's death in 1437.
1434 The reason for Bedford's return to France was a deterioration in England's relations with Burgundy. Burgundy had been England's ally since the French had murdered Duke Philip's father at parley in 1419. Now, however, there was a rapprochement between France and Burgundy and Bedford moved to halt it. Alas! John, Duke of Bedford died in September 1435 leaving no-one of comparable ability, experience and stature to take his place at home or abroad. Six days later Philip, Duke of Burgundy signed the Treaty of Arras and England was alone! Indeed, in 1436 the Burgundians besieged Calais. At Court, the Council was split between Gloucester, demanding an aggressive policy towards France, and Cardinal Beaufort and Suffolk, suggesting a policy of peace and appeasement.
1436 In 1436 the Council decided that Richard, Duke of York, should assume Bedford's mantle as Governor of Normandy and Regent of France. Although young, he was the premier magnate of the realm and his rank demanded high office. However he gained little support from Council or Parliament who voted no funds, expecting him to finance the war from his own pocket. York was powerless to prevent the French from retaking Paris in 1436; all he gained was valuable military experience!
1437 By 1437 the Council, factionated, inefficient and corrupt, had ceased to rule effectively. Embezzlement and the war had depleted the crown coffers to the point of bankruptcy. Henry VI's income from all sources amounted to some £75000 per year but his debts totalled over £164000. Beaufort and Suffolk's peace policy became the only realistic, if unpalatable, solution. York and the great soldier John Talbot had repelled the French from Normandy, but York's term of office expired in April 1437. The Council asked him to stay on but he refused, angered by the government's refusal to repay him. The Council had to look elsewhere.
King Henry VI declared himself of age in November and formally took over the reins of government, reverting the Council to its normal, advisory role. Henry reappointed all its members to their accustomed positions and made Richard Beauchamp, Earl of Warwick a duke and Lieutenant of France, (until now he had been the King's governor.).
Henry has proved from the first to be too weak a ruler, tending to agree with the last person he speaks to! He agreed with Beaufort's peace policy but, influenced by Gloucester, he refused to give up any lands in France or his title as King. He also has a weakness for rewarding his favourites profligately. A strong ruler at this time might have saved the situation for England, but instead we got Henry! Pious and prudish with an almost complete lack of political judgement. Henry would have made a good monk but is an abysmal King.
Henry's worst weakness is undoubtedly his inability to avoid domination by factions and favourites. Whoever controls Henry controls the country! His other big weakness is his expenditure. In 1433 his household cost £13000, by 1449 it cost £24000. Whilst over the same period, Henry's gifts of land to his friends reduced the crown's income from over £75000 to less than £50000.Henry poured riches upon members of what had now become the Court Faction, principally Suffolk, various members of the Beaufort family and the Tudors. In 1440, Parliament received a petition to tax the country £10000 in order to pay the back-wages of the household servants. This did not please the common people at all!
1439 In 1439,Cardinal Beaufort's embassy to Charles VII of France ended in failure and the Earl of Warwick died to be replaced by John, Earl of Somerset, (awarded an exorbitant salary of £7200). Gloucester, now joined by York, attempted to oppose the Court Faction, bitterly attacking its failures in France. The Court began to move on its opponents.
1440 In July 1440, York was appointed Lieutenant of France with expenses of £20000 per year. His brief was to work towards a peace treaty with Charles VII whilst defending English interests militarily. Somerset, however, continued to perform his office and the handover was delayed until June 1441.
1441 Once York was in France, Gloucester was isolated and Beaufort had the Duchess of Gloucester arrested for witchcraft at a very public dinner in London. She was found guilty and her "accomplices" were burned or hung, drawn and quartered. She was imprisoned for life. Gloucester was forced to divorce her or be attainted with her. Although he continued to criticise the government, his credibility was destroyed and no-one listened to him.
1442 Henry celebrated his coming-of-age in 1442 by creating some new peers, including Richard Neville, Earl of Salisbury and John Talbot, Earl of Shrewsbury, (Talbot's second son became Lord Lisle).
1443 Cardinal Beaufort now concentrated all his energies on peace but talks always failed upon Henry's claim to be King of France. In the spring of 1443, Charles and his Dauphin invaded Gascony wrong-footing the English who were expecting an attack on Normandy. In April, Somerset was appointed Captain-General of Aquitaine without reference to York and in August he was created Duke of Somerset! York was expecting vital reinforcements in Normandy that were diverted to Somerset who promptly failed disastrously, angering England's ally, the Duke of Brittany in the process, before returning to England to receive a pension of £25000 per year. Meanwhile York had got not a penny of his £20000 expenses and was once again paying his troops out of his own pocket, pawning his own possessions to finance England's war effort.
The autumn saw Cardinal Beaufort suggest in the interests of peace a marriage of alliance with France. The Court Faction supported the idea and the King was enthusiastic. The bride-to-be was the niece of Charles VII and daughter of Rene, Count of Anjou and titular King of Naples, Sicily, Hungary and Jerusalem. Her name was Margaret and she was beautiful, intelligent and well educated.
1444 A peace conference at Tours was called in January 1444 between England, France and Burgundy. Also present would be Rene, Count of Anjou. The English ambassador was Suffolk, though he realised the marriage would be unpopular at home and begged to be excused. Nonetheless he went, arriving at Tours in April where Charles and Rene courteously received his entourage, (magnificently equipped at great expense to the Exchequer). Henry's formal request for the hand of Margaret was readily agreed but Rene pointed out that the English held all his lands and so he could afford no dowry. The French demanded the return of Maine and Anjou as part of the terms of the marriage treaty.
Suffolk reported back to England and he and Bishop Moleyns convinced Henry to agree. Suffolk returned to Tours where England ceded Maine and Anjou in return for guarantees for Normandy and Aquitaine. Henry waived his bride's dowry and undertook to pay for the wedding out of his own privy purse. There would be a two-year truce. The Treaty of Tours was signed on the 22nd of May and two days later Margaret and Henry were formally betrothed, Suffolk standing proxy for the King.
On the 27th of May, John Beaufort, Duke of Somerset died by his own hand, unable to bear the shame of his humiliating debacle in France. His brother Edmund, Marquis of Dorset, already a protégé of the Cardinal and an ardent member of the Court Faction succeeded him as Earl but not Duke of Somerset. Henry made him Duke of Somerset in 1444.
One month later Suffolk came to London to show Parliament the Treaty of Tours. But the cession of Maine and Anjou was kept hidden and Parliament was led to believe that the peace was made on terms advantageous to England. Suffolk became a Marquis. In November, Suffolk and the Earls of Salisbury and Shrewsbury crossed to France with another expensive retinue and a proxy wedding was held in Nancy in March 1445. The Duke of York escorted Margaret through Normandy and 56 ships escorted her across the channel. She was violently seasick and Suffolk carried her ashore. Henry pawned the crown jewels to pay for the wedding and then had to pawn his own personal jewels to buy them back when he realised he needed them for the ceremony. William Ayscough, Bishop of Salisbury, performed the marriage on the 23rd of April. The couple honeymooned at Titchfield Abbey.
1445 Queen Margaret of Anjou is talented, valiant, proud, ruthless, vindictive and impulsive. She quickly came to dominate Henry and so influence English politics directly. She naturally supported the peace policy, allying closely with Beaufort and Suffolk and, in ignorance, making enemies of York and Gloucester. The more she discovered how inept was her husband, the more she was driven to make decisions for him, drawing much adverse comment by those who believed it was not a woman's place to dabble in government and politics. Bishop Ayscough had counselled Henry not to trouble his wife overly in bed, so it was some years before she bore him an heir. All these things were to make her deeply unpopular with all but the Court Faction.
The marriage was a triumph for Suffolk and Cardinal Beaufort but it was very unpopular with the people who wanted war and glorious victories rather than peace at any price. Suffolk became a father figure for the Queen and there were rumours that they were lovers, but this was mere scandal. In July, the French started making noises about the English concessions so that the truce could become a permanent peace. Margaret urged Henry to agree but he vacillated. Under pressure from the Beauforts who were jealous of York's successes, Henry recalled York in the summer of 1445. York returned in the autumn, owed £38000 by the Crown, but he received scant sympathy at Court. Bishop Moleyns even accused him in Parliament of misgovernment and malpractice in Normandy, but York was cleared of all suspicion when it was found that the Bishop had bribed some soldiers into perjury. Edmund, Duke of Somerset, replaced him in France.
1446 October saw the French pressing harder for the return of Maine and Anjou and in December Henry agreed to hand them over by the end of April 1446. Henry told none of his officers in France of his plans nor did he wait for the approval of his Council. But rumours leaked and the news of the forthcoming losses unleashed a storm of protest across the country. Henry's subjects felt betrayed! The King delayed as long as possible and then sent evacuation orders to the governor of Maine and Anjou on the 30th of April. The governor refused and, such was the jubilation at home, Henry dared not force the issue and dithered until Charles VII was exasperated.
Discovery of the secret clause in the Treaty of Tours had led Gloucester to new heights of condemnation and he met with great popularity for the first time since his wife's trial. Despite warnings to shut up, he continued to make public speeches denouncing Suffolk and the King's advisors. By December he was close to fomenting open rebellion. The Court moved against him in February 1447 by summoning him to Parliament at Bury St. Edmund's where Suffolk's influence was strong. Utterly unaware of the danger, Duke Humphrey walked into the royal presence and was promptly charged with treason and sedition. The Duke of Buckingham and Viscount Beaumont, as Steward and Constable respectively, arrested him. Twelve days later he died amidst rumours of murder. Cardinal Beaufort had at last vanquished his lifelong enemy!
1447 Gloucester's death made Richard, Duke of York heir to the throne. Many feel that he has a better claim to it than Henry himself, (though those who say so come to bad ends!). York was also the political heir to Gloucester, though he avoided Duke Humphrey's militant stance out of respect for the Court's vindictiveness. Instead he became the people's champion for reform and good governance.
Cardinal Beaufort did not long survive his rival's demise, dying himself in March. With him went the crown's chief financial crutch and loan shark. Somerset assumed his political mantle and the King showered him with gifts. Popular rumour had it that he was to be named heir to the throne despite Parliament barring the Beaufort lineage from the succession in 1397. Suffolk was now at the zenith of his power holding the offices of Chamberlain of England, Captain of Calais, Warden of the Cinque Ports, Steward of the Duchy of Lancaster, Chief Justice of the County Palatine of Chester, Flint, and North Wales and Surveyor of the King's Mines.
With Gloucester dead there was no-one to voice opposition to the surrender of Maine and Anjou. In April talks resumed, incurring another storm of abuse aimed mainly at Suffolk who was now loathed by the country at large. He defended himself in Parliament most eloquently but the commons still blamed him for the loss of territory in France, the dowerless Queen and every other ill that had befallen the realm. In July, Henry agreed to hand over Maine and Anjou to Charles VII by November 1st, but November passed without the promised exchange.
By now, eighteen year old Margaret was routinely involved in the day-to-day administration. The Court, (consisting of Suffolk, Somerset, Cardinal Kemp, Bishop Moleyns of Chichester and Lord Saye), would not act without her approval. The Court was opposed by a group of lords who for various reasons had been excluded from Council; this faction looked to Richard, Duke of York for leadership. The Court feared York and had blocked his involvement in politics. To get him out of the way, in December he was made Lieutenant of Ireland for ten years. Realising this amounted to effectual exile; York delayed his departure for as long as possible.
1448 In February 1448, tired of Henry's prevarication, Charles VII led his armies into Maine and set siege to Le Mans. Henry finally agreed to a formal surrender on condition the truce was extended to April 1450. This created more ill feeling in England as did the news that the Queen's father had fought with Charles in Maine. Suffolk again bore the brunt of public opprobrium but in the spring the King responded by making him Duke of Suffolk.
1449 Somerset and Margaret started a whispering campaign that York had designs on the throne and in 1449 forced him to take up his office in Ireland. This was no sinecure for Ireland is riven by tribal feuds. However York won the favour and affection of many Anglo-Irish lords and even of some of the natives, building a strong affinity around his Earldom of Ulster.
Henry created three new earls; Salisbury's son, Richard, became Earl of Warwick; James Butler added Wiltshire to his Irish earldom of Ormonde; and John, Lord Tiptoft was made Earl of Worcester.
Somerset went to Rouen as Governor of Normandy at £20000 per year and immediately demonstrated his lack of ability by attacking the small Breton town of Fougeres, at one stroke breaking England's hard won truce and alienating the Duke of Brittany, hitherto England's ally. Charles VII responded forcefully and in the summer his armies overran Normandy and besieged Rouen. In October, Somerset withdrew from Rouen in return for guarantees for the towns of the Norman coast and giving numerous hostages, including the Earl of Shrewsbury. Knowing Somerset was not the man to stop them, the French attacked the towns anyway!
Desperate for money to finance a new French war, Henry called Parliament to Westminster in November. The Lords and Commons united in calling for the impeachment of the detested Duke of Suffolk, blaming him for all the failures in France. The regime started to look very shaky indeed.
In December, Bishop Moleyns of Chichester resigned as Keeper of the Privy Seal but remained an instrument of Court. In January he took the wages of the King's sailors to Portsmouth and attempted to explain why it was short. They lynched him, but not before he had accused Suffolk for the recent losses in France. Suffolk made his last error, betrothing his ward, Margaret Beaufort, daughter of the previous Duke of Somerset to his son John which was seen as an attempt to secure a claim to the succession.
1450 Suffolk was impeached on the 26th of January 1450 and sent to the Tower of London. On the 12th of February the King referred the charges against Suffolk for his own decision though the Commons wanted him tried by the Lords. Henry dithered for a month while a frustrated Parliament added more charges to its petition. The Duke stood accused of high-treason, spying for and conspiracy with, the French, acting without the consent of King or Council, plotting the King's deposition in favour of his son, embezzlement of crown funds and taxes, riot, extortion, murder, manslaughter, bribery and corruption. On the 17th of March, the King called Suffolk to answer the charges and he denied them all. The King declared him innocent of treason but found "some truth" in the corruption charges. The Queen would not have him executed and so he was exiled for five years from May 1st.
The Commons were furious, knowing that the King's actions had saved Suffolk's life. The Duke was nearly lynched when he left the Tower and had to wait six weeks at his castle of Wingfield before leaving. On the 30th of April, Suffolk sailed from Ipswich for Calais but the Nicholas of the Tower intercepted his ship in the Straits of Dover and the sailors tried and executed him as a traitor. His naked body lay rotting on Dover Sands for a month before being buried at the orders of the King.
By now crown debts had risen to £372000 while income had fallen to £33000 per year. The royal household alone now cost £24000 annually. The Italian bankers were refusing more loans nor would Parliament vote any more taxes to cover debts or further war. Disorder was growing in the provinces, especially Wales.
At Whitsun, three weeks after Suffolk's death, rebellion broke out in Kent, led by "Jack Cade" who also claimed to be a bastard son of Edmund Mortimer, Earl of March. The rebels published a manifesto listing grievances against the government and naming individuals, including Lord Saye and William Booth, now Archbishop of York. Cade demanded an act of resumption to restore crown income and dismissal of the corrupt Court Faction. He also called for an inquiry as to whether the loss of lands in France was due to treason and for Gloucester's murderers to be brought to justice. This was no peasant's revolt but drew supporters from the gentry down.
The King incompetently divided his army. When Cade routed one half, the other mutinied and joined the rebels. Henry fled first to Greenwich, then Kenilworth, leaving the rebels to run riot through London. The rebels executed the Treasurer, Lord Saye and Sir William Crowmer, Sheriff of Kent. Disorder spread to the rest of the Southeast, the Isle of Wight and Wales. In Wiltshire, Bishop Ayscough of Salisbury was murdered at his altar.
Cade's rebellion eventually sputtered out, Cade fleeing to Sussex where he was killed resisting arrest. Despite the issuing of pardons, Henry presided over the trials of as many rebels as he could catch calling the executions an "harvest of heads". Cade's rebellion achieved little but served to show publicly the uselessness of the King's officials and the King himself.
In July, Somerset surrendered Caen to the French along with his artillery and retired to London. York wrote to Henry demanding Somerset's arrest for incompetence and Henry summoned Parliament to try him. Somerset appealed to the Queen and she forced the King to readmit Somerset to the Council and reward him with offices and pensions. August saw the defeat of an English force at Formigny and by September the French had reconquered Normandy.
Enraged at the King's failure to indict Somerset, York made his way to Ludlow, raised an army of 4000 and marched on London with Lord Dudley. He evaded a small force sent to arrest him and when he reached London he had 50000 men. On September 29th, York entered Westminster and forced the king to see him. He berated the King's advisors but made no attempt to push his own claim to the throne.
York submitted two bills of complaint. One listed personal grievances, principally his £38000 expenses and exclusion from Council. The other concerned the nation at large and was similar to Cade's manifesto. Henry gave in, admitting York to the Council, but he insisted that the Council must discuss his proposals for reform and ensured York's would be a lone voice. This brought York and Somerset into face-to-face conflict on a daily basis.
In the November Parliament, York used all his influence to pack the Commons with his supporters. The attending magnates brought massive armed retinues, (York alone had 3000 men), creating an air of tension in London which led to riots. The Commons elected York's man, Sir William Oldhall, as Speaker and the Duke of Norfolk supported York, (his brother-in-law), but the other Lords tried to stay neutral and refused to discuss the Council, preferring to talk about providing a fixed income for the royal household. Under Oldhall, the Commons demanded and got an Act of Resumption that reclaimed all the crown lands alienated in the past 20 years and a committee to oversee future royal grants.
Somerset was impeached in December and imprisoned in the Tower but the Queen secured his release within hours, provoking a riot which might have led to the Duke's lynching had not the Earl of Devon calmed the crowd at York's request. The next day, the King donned armour and paraded the streets at the head of 1000 lords and soldiers, quelling the riots but not the ill feeling. Somerset was appointed Chamberlain of the Household.
1451 The extent of the King's debts was made very clear when the King and Queen arrived at the high table for the Feast of Epiphany to find no food as the tradesmen had refused to supply the household further on credit!
When Parliament reconvened after Christmas, the angry Commons submitted a petition demanding the removal and attainder of 29 people regarded as having abused the King's laws and privileges. The list included Somerset, Bishop William Booth of Coventry and Lichfield and various old adherents of Suffolk. The King promised to banish all but the magnates from Court for a year but would not touch Somerset and promoted William Booth to Archbishop of York.
The Lords failed to back York and his grasp on affairs began to slip away. Somerset became Captain of Calais, despite his incompetence in Normandy, making him commander of England's largest military force just as the French were attacking Gascony. The Commons tried to get York recognised as heir apparent but the petitioner was put in the Tower. When Parliament dissolved, York found himself back in the political cold.
The French took Bordeaux on the 30th of June 1451. By the autumn, Henry VI clearly did not intend to allow the reforms and there was rioting in the West Country. Rumours of impending civil war circulated throughout the winter.
1452 In January 1452, the King sent the Earl of Shrewsbury and the Bishop of Hereford to York at Ludlow to complain about the defamation of his advisers. York affirmed his allegiance to the King and offered to swear it on the Holy Sacrament in the presence of witnesses. Instead the King summoned him to a Council meeting at Coventry where Court influence is strong. York declined, remembering the demise of the Duke of Gloucester. The Queen forced Henry to issue commissions of array for the raising of a royal army thus forcing York's hand. He raised his own army and marched on London as did Lord Cobham and the Earl of Devon. The King with the Duke of Buckingham and Lord Bonville led the royal army to intercept York at Coventry. York easily evaded him and continued toward London.
By now the King had been joined by an impressive array of magnates; the dukes of Exeter, Norfolk and Buckingham; the earls of Salisbury, Shrewsbury, Wiltshire and Worcester; the Lords Beaumont, Lisle, Clifford, Egremont, Moleyns, Stourton, Camoys and Beauchamp; Viscount Bourchier and several prelates. They urged the King to moderation.
When London closed its gates York turned south to Dartford and faced the pursuing royal army in battle order on March the 1st. The King arriving the next day. Both armies were equal at about 20000 men. Thankfully neither side really wanted to fight. The bishops of Winchester and Ely, with the earls of Salisbury and Warwick, parleyed a peaceful settlement whereby York would return to the fold provided Somerset was arrested. York's force disbanded in good faith but York, Devon and Cobham found themselves surrounded by hostile troops when they tried to make their peace with Henry. The Queen demanded their arrest. Henry declined, at the behest of the other magnates, but he also refused to arrest Somerset.
York became effectively a prisoner of the Court and was forced to swear an oath in St. Paul's Cathedral "that he had never rebelled against the King and would not rebel against him in the future", before retiring to Ludlow. Somerset and the Queen would have liked to have seen him indicted but the magnates urged restraint. The King pardoned everyone in April and in August visited York at Ludlow in a spirit of reconciliation, but the Court still excluded York from Council.
The citizens of Bordeaux wrote to Henry VI in March 1452 begging for deliverance from the French. Henry had troops but no cash! Margaret asked Philip, Duke of Burgundy for help. He gave money and a fleet, allowing the Earl of Shrewsbury and 3000 men to retake Bordeaux in October. The rest of Gascony expelled the French and the tide of war had changed.
At home the King raised his half-brothers Edmund and Jasper Tudor to be earls of Richmond and Pembroke, granting them precedence over all other earls and annuities of £925 each! He also, very ineptly, "gave" the lordship of Glamorgan to Somerset despite it belonging to Richard Neville, Earl of Warwick. Until now, Warwick and his father the Earl of Salisbury had been staunch, if moderate supporters of the crown, now they became supporters of York.
1453 John Talbot, Earl of Shrewsbury heroically swept through Gascony but, needing reinforcements, wrote to the Queen asking for troops in the spring of 1453. However Parliament hesitated to grant a tax as it had been purged of all Yorkist adherents and was an instrument of the Court. It stripped York of some of his estates and attainted Sir William Oldhall. The Earl of Richmond was given wardship of Margaret Beaufort.
In April came the news that the Queen was at last pregnant with an heir. Though it is rumoured that Henry initially denied his fatherhood, he seems to have been delighted enough to reward the Queen with a jewel worth £200. Meanwhile Shrewsbury was clamouring for money and troops as he desperately tried to defend against a three pronged attack by Charles VII of France. Seeking to attack the French separately, in July he was forced to battle with a superior force at Castillon and cut to pieces. So passed our greatest hero since Henry V! Parliament acted now, but too late. By the time a new army was ready in October, Gascony had fallen. Only Calais now remains from the King's French patrimony.
The news of Castillon was a dreadful shock to the King. "A disease and disorder of such a sort overcame the King that he lost his wits and memory for a time, and nearly all his body was uncoordinated and out of control that he could neither walk nor hold his head up, nor easily move from where he sat". The Council tried to keep his illness a secret but failure to stem the disorder in the North between the Nevilles and the Percies and, crucially, his failure to recognise his son Edward or appear at his christening forced a meeting of the Great Council in January 1454. Surprisingly the earls of Richmond and Pembroke supported York's candidature as Protector, against the Queen's claim, in concern over the influence of the Court.
1454 York was voted Protector of the Realm in March, his term of office was to be until Henry recovered or Prince Edward attained his majority. York's first acts were the appointment of Thomas Bourchier as Archbishop of Canterbury and the arrest of Somerset. He set about putting the Kingdom to rights, getting the Queen out of politics and replacing her cronies with capable men such as the earls of Salisbury and Warwick and the new Bishop of Exeter. Disturbances in the localities were quietened by the arrest of the Duke of Exeter and York himself led an army into the North to quell the Percies. York moved to curb French piracy against English trade in the Channel and he attempted to sort out the crown's finances to maintain the royal household and reduce the debt. Despite having their entourages cut back, the earls of Richmond and Pembroke supported the reforms. Not so the Queen, who detested York for cutting her household to 120 persons and that of her son to 38.
1455 York governed exceedingly well up until Christmas when there occurred a national disaster. The King recovered! Though those that know do say he has never been quite right since, (as if he had ever been "quite right" before!)
In February 1455, the King relieved York "at Greenwich, after he had governed England most excellently and nobly for a whole year, miraculously pacifying all rebels and malefactors according to the laws and without great rigour, in a wonderful manner, and he resigned his office much honoured and loved".
There was an immediate backlash against York's appointments. Archbishop Bourchier replaced Salisbury as Chancellor and James Butler, Earl of Wiltshire, (whom some cite as the Queen's paramour), replaced the Earl of Worcester as Treasurer. Exeter and Somerset were released, Somerset receiving the offices of Constable of England and Captain of Calais again. The three began plotting revenge. York retired to Ludlow, Salisbury to Middleham and Warwick to Warwick.
The Queen, fearing his power in the Marches, began to foment ill feeling toward York in the West Country and Wales. In March, Warwick learned that Somerset was planning a secret meeting in Westminster to which only peers sympathetic to the Court would be summoned. He informed his father and York and all three wrote to the King protesting their loyalty but their letters were intercepted and never reached him. Henry summoned York, Salisbury and Warwick to a Great Council at Leicester, another Court stronghold, and again, recalling the fate of Humphrey, Duke of Gloucester, they raised their retinues and marched toward London supported by Lord Clinton and Lord Grey of Powys.
Their onset alarmed the Court which hastily raised an army and met them at St. Albans. The Duke of Norfolk led his retinue into Hertfordshire but remained aloof, refusing to commit to either side. The Queen took the Prince of Wales to Greenwich. All the time York was attempting to parley but his letters never got past Somerset. The royal army under the Duke of Buckingham dug in inside the wallless town. It included a dozen other peers. York attempted to parley but met only hostility from Buckingham and the King. Sadly, he and Salisbury attacked, leading their men down the eastern streets to the market square to meet with strong resistance from the royal troops under Lord Clifford. Warwick then took his reserves and broke down the walls of some houses, taking the defenders in the rear. The fighting became furious but was over in half an hour. The King's men routed, leaving the King to be wounded and captured as were the Duke of Buckingham, the earls of Stafford and Dorset, and lords Stourton and Dudley. The dead included the Duke of Somerset, the Earl of Northumberland and Lord Clifford.
York, Salisbury and Warwick immediately confirmed their devotion to the King and he was greatly cheered. He accepted that for them to go to Leicester would have meant their deaths at the hands of Somerset. Neither side had really wanted war; now, with Somerset dead, it seemed that peace was possible. The King was escorted back to London where he appointed York as Constable of England. Within a week, Buckingham, Pembroke, Shrewsbury, Wiltshire and all the other peers had made their peace with him. Jasper, Earl of Pembroke was especially anxious to work with York to devise a workable solution to the problems facing government. York found himself back at the reins of power and embarked on a policy of conciliation appointing some new officers but keeping some of the Court in power. Most notably Archbishop Bourchier retained the Chancellorship. Parliament met again in July and passed a new Act of Resumption, much like the last save for the exclusion of the Tudors.
October was eventful! Rioting occurred in Devon between the Earl of Devon and Lord Bonville. Edmund Tudor, Earl of Richmond married his ward Margaret Beaufort, (the niece of the Duke of Somerset killed at St. Albans and cousin to the new). And the King lost his wits again! Meanwhile the Queen was rallying support for her cause and nursing a bitter hatred for York and all associated to him.
Parliament was recalled in November and again made York Protector with similar tenure as before save that now only the Lords could dismiss him. Again York governed well and with moderation, insisting that all his decisions be approved in Council. The royal finances were overhauled and Oldhall's attainder was reversed. The West Country riots were quelled by the arrests of the Duke of Exeter and the Earl of Devon. Parliament was still sitting when Henry recovered and relieved York in February 1456. Although he kept York on the Council, he butchered the Act of Resumption with so many exclusions it became worthless.
1456 Having experienced the taste of peace and prosperity under York, and incensed by the high-handedness of the Queen, London became very pro-York. Warwick became Captain of Calais and performed most creditably.
The next two years passed peacefully if uneasily, mainly thanks to the competence of York and the moderation of Buckingham. Queen Margaret spent most of her time at Kenilworth or Coventry, (the only city where she is liked)! Henry stayed with his wife and child and so, for a time, Coventry became the seat of government. York and the Queen both played a waiting game, watching each other. As the Queen regained more and more control over the government, so riot, disorder and false rumours of battles swept the country, especially in London and the south coast towns. Rumour also has it she intrigued with the Scots, offering Northumberland, Cumberland and Durham in return for their invading England in July.
A dispute over the stewardship of Carmarthen Castle resulted in the Earl of Richmond being imprisoned by Sir William Herbert in the summer of 1456. Released in the autumn, he died in November. He left a pregnant, twelve-year old widow!
August saw York personally defeat the King of the Scots and an army of raiders. In October, the Queen dismissed the Bourchiers from Chancery and Treasury and replaced them with Bishop Wayneflete of Winchester and the young Earl of Shrewsbury.
1457 January 1457 saw the Queen stockpiling arms at Kenilworth and replacing Shrewsbury with Wiltshire. No less than 16 sheriffs were in her pay. Buckingham and Pembroke managed to control her worst tyrannies, but slowly her influence was growing and in March York was sent back to Ireland. Warwick's efforts against Italian pirates in the channel won him the admiration of the merchants of both London and Calais. In August the French raided Sandwich and even the Queen condemned the Duke of Exeter for incompetence as Admiral. In September she secured the Bishopric of Durham for one of her household officers, Lawrence Booth. In December, the Queen attempted to introduce conscription to give the King a standing army.
1458 Meanwhile, Henry was trying to appease the tensions in his Court assisted by Bishop Wayneflete of Winchester and Archbishop Bourchier. In January, a peace concord met at Westminster. The peace was almost broken in February when the Duke of Somerset, the Earl of Northumberland and Lord Clifford demanded compensation for the deaths of their fathers at St. Albans. Henry VI ordered York, Salisbury and Warwick to make amends, which they did, creating a chantry for the dead men's souls at St. Albans and paying over £4000 compensation. The concord ended with "Loveday" where all protagonists went to mass at the Feast of the Annunciation in pairs, hand-in-hand, Yorkist with Lancastrian. Queen Margaret and the Duke of York at the front. Afterward Henry withdrew and absorbed himself in his Easter devotions whilst the other protagonists returned to watchful waiting.
The Queen summoned Warwick to London from Calais in July to answer questions about his captaincy. The Council instituted an inquiry but their questioning failed to discomfit the Earl. In the autumn the Earl was again in London when one of the Queen's cooks clumsily tried to assassinate him with a cooking spit. Again in November she summoned him to Council where he affirmed that only Parliament could divest him of his office. Retainers of Somerset and Wiltshire attacked him as he left the chamber but kept his office and returned to Calais.
1459 The Queen returned to Coventry, where she works her best mischief. In April this year she persuaded the King to issue writs to "all loyal magnates" to meet him at Leicester in May with all their retainers and for the shire levies to be summoned. York and his supporters were forced to arm. All through the spring, contingents were passing across the country. War was only a matter of time!
A Great Council was called to Coventry in June. Despite personal summons, the Archbishop of Canterbury, Duke of York, Earl of Arundel, Viscount Bourchier, the Bishop of Exeter and many other lords stayed away.
Messages reached Warwick asking him to come from Calais to join his father. He brought 600 of the Calais garrison with him, leaving Lord Fauconberg in charge. Finding the road barred by the Queen's troops, Warwick marched to Ludlow. The Queen learned of the Earl of Salisbury leaving Middleham and sent Lord Audley to intercept him. Lord Audley's force outnumbered Salisbury's by 2 to 1. On September 23rd, Salisbury's scouts discovered Audley blocking the road and the Earl drew up his troops on Blore Heath near Market Drayton. Audley and Salisbury parleyed but it came to nought and Audley attacked. In a fierce and bloody battle, Audley was killed and his troops routed, Lord Dudley falling prisoner. Salisbury left his cannon as a ruse and led his men under cover of dark past the royal army and on to Ludlow, where he met Warwick and York.
The Yorkists left Ludlow with 25000 men, making for London. The royal army moved to block them and they met between Kidderminster and Worcester. York retreated to Worcester and there the Yorkists swore a public oath of respect to the King. York did not want to fight the King directly and moved on to Tewkesbury. Henry sent the Bishop of Salisbury to him offering a pardon if he submitted. Warwick publicly declined and York crossed the Severn making for Ludlow, camping just to the south, near Ludford Bridge and dug in.
On October 10th, the royal army arrived and drew up in battle order. Both Henry and York wanted to avoid a fight but the Queen intercepted York's letter to the King and forged a letter offering battle. That night, Andrew Trollope deserted from Warwick, taking part of the Calais garrison and York's plan of battle over to the King. The next day brought more desertions and York realised his situation was hopeless. At midnight on October 12th the Yorkist leaders fled after dismissing their troops. Next morning, the royal soldiers sacked the town, running out of control, "assaulting and raping the women".
The King and Queen returned to Coventry and dismissed the army. York fled to Devon, then sailed to Wales and Ireland with his son Edmund, Earl of Rutland. Salisbury and Warwick sailed with York's eldest son Edward, Earl of March, to Calais. Wherever they went, the Yorkist lords were met like heroes, being highly regarded in their refuges. And there all the protagonists remained at Christmas.
Queen Margaret summoned a Parliament to Coventry in November. Packed with her supporters, it attainted York, Salisbury, Warwick, March, Rutland; the Lord Clinton, Sir William Stanley, Sir William Oldhall, Sir William Hastings and others, and apportioned their lands amongst the Court. Duchess Cecily of York was made to witness the proceedings against her husband and people are already calling it the "Parliament of Devils". James, Earl of Ormonde and Wiltshire is Lieutenant of Ireland, (in addition to Lord Treasurer), and Henry, Duke of Somerset is Captain of Calais, (and Constable of England). Obviously the Queen is looking to these men to remove the refugees from their sanctuaries. The magnates were forced to swear a new oath of allegiance to Henry VI which included vows to the Queen and Edward, Prince of Wales. Parliament has also assigned all the revenues of Coventry for her personal use.
Save for some minor skirmishing around Calais and Sandwich, hostilities have ceased until after Epiphany. But look out for more violence in the New Year.
